German politicians also targeted Jews as disloyal outsiders, although most of Germany's Jewish population voted for mainstream liberal or conservative politicians preferring assimilation into the political system rather than organizing into a separate political party. Guy, Monika Chavez, Thomas A. Lovik Although many Catholics sympathized with conservative politics, Bismarck viewed Roman Catholicism, with its purported loyalty to a Roman pontiff, as a potential weakness to the German state. Furthermore, since he trusted neither Moltke nor Roon, he was reluctant to enter a military enterprise over which he would have no control. A Nation of Provincials: The German Idea of Heimat. March 2, 2023 2:09 AM PT. They would have been Genoese or Sicilian or Veronese. Their combined agendas established Prussia as the leading German power through a combination of foreign diplomatic triumphsbacked up by the possible use of Prussian military mightand an internal conservatism tempered by pragmatism, which came to be known as Realpolitik. [40] Karl Baedeker wrote guidebooks to different cities and regions of Central Europe, indicating places to stay, sites to visit, and giving a short history of castles, battlefields, famous buildings, and famous people. Once he arrived, however, he ordered his troops immediately into the fray. 52% average accuracy. In these states, German life has its positive and negative polesin the former, all the interests [that] are national and reformative, in the latter, all that are dynastic and destructive. The French public, still aggravated over the defeat at Sadov, demanded war. Finally, Francefearing Hohenzollern encirclementdeclared war on Prussia in 1870, resulting in the Franco-Prussian War. This essay, and the others in this collection, focuses on Saxony, demonstrating how multiple groups of non-German ethnicities interacted in the era of unification. A revolution in Spain overthrew Queen Isabella II, and the throne remained empty while Isabella lived in sumptuous exile in Paris. The unification of Germany fundamentally altered the delicate "balance of powers" established by the Congress of Vienna with the creation of a large, wealthy, and powerful nation-state in central Europe. However, the Prussian leadership, which was thoroughly conservative, rejected the Frankfurt constitution, preferring reform and unification directed from above. The model of diplomatic spheres of influence resulting from the Congress of Vienna in 181415 after the Napoleonic Wars endorsed Austrian dominance in Central Europe through Habsburg leadership of the German Confederation, designed to replace the Holy Roman Empire. Unification of Italy and Germany Social Issue High Imperialism World . The Burschenschaft student organizations and popular demonstrations, such as those held at Wartburg Castle in October 1817, contributed to a growing sense of unity among German speakers of Central Europe. The operas are based on an ancient German myth, and Wagner hoped that the retelling of this myth in modern operatic form would foster a spirit of German nationalism. Moreover, it is a useful case study for the broader concept of "nationalism" as a historical agent. Through a combination of Bismarck's diplomacy and political leadership, von Roon's military reorganization, and von Moltke's military strategy, Prussia demonstrated that none of the European signatories of the 1815 peace treaty could guarantee Austria's sphere of influence in Central Europe, thus achieving Prussian hegemony in Germany and ending the dualism debate.[73]. AP EUROPEAN HISTORY SUMMER, 2017 ASSIGNMENTS Welcome to AP European History. [9] This interpretation became a key building block of the Borussian myth expounded by the pro-Prussian nationalist historians later in the 19th century. [58], This sphere of influence system depended upon the fragmentation of the German and Italian states, not their consolidation. By 1870 three of the important lessons of the Austro-Prussian war had become apparent. [122], Mommsen's contributions to the Monumenta Germaniae Historica laid the groundwork for additional scholarship on the study of the German nation, expanding the notion of "Germany" to mean other areas beyond Prussia. [27], The economic, social and cultural dislocation of ordinary people, the economic hardship of an economy in transition, and the pressures of meteorological disasters all contributed to growing problems in Central Europe. The reality of defeat for Austria also caused a reevaluation of internal divisions, local autonomy, and liberalism. by cjones004. [50], More recent scholarship has rejected this idea, claiming that Germany did not have an actual "distinctive path" any more than any other nation, a historiographic idea known as exceptionalism. The unifications wouldn't have been achieved without the help of men and historical circumstances. In Deutschland, Deutschland ber Alles, officially called Das Lied der Deutschen ("The Song of the Germans"), Fallersleben called upon sovereigns throughout the German states to recognize the unifying characteristics of the German people. AP Euro Italian Unification YouTube Video Otto von Bismarck (April 1, 1815 - July 30, 1898) Otto von Bismarck was a Prussian statesman who set the stage for the creation of the German Empire in 1871 and served as its chancellor for 19 years. The Revolution of 1848 brought some liberal reforms to Prussia, such as the ability of the parliament to obstruct certain forms of taxation. This was particularly important for the emerging industrial centers, most of which were located in the Prussian regions of the Rhineland, the Saar, and the Ruhr valleys. He then hoped that Austria would join in a war of revenge and that its former alliesparticularly the southern German states of Baden, Wrttemberg, and Bavariawould join in the cause. Judicial System: Body of Prince electors that often fought. Revolutionaries associated national unification with progress. They traced the roots of the German language, and drew its different lines of development together. [62] This shuffling of authority within the Prussian military establishment would have important consequences. Hitler often called on the German public to sacrifice all for the cause of their great nation, but his regime did not create German nationalism: it merely capitalized on an intrinsic cultural value of German society that still remains prevalent even to this day. That Obama wanted Merkel to stay on during what he foresaw would be a chaotic period under Trump was not only due to her formidable skills - it was. During the Revolution of 1848, liberals met in the Frankfurt Assembly and drafted a constitution modeled on the ideals of the French Revolution of 1789. Even after the end of the Holy Roman Empire, this competition influenced the growth and development of nationalist movements in the 19th century. Russian Jews arrived in north German cities in the thousands; considerably less educated and less affluent, their often dismal poverty dismayed many of the Germanized Jews. [19], Despite considerable conservative reaction, ideas of unity joined with notions of popular sovereignty in German-speaking lands. Blackbourn, David. [98] The German High Command expected an overture of peace from the French, but the new republic refused to surrender. [101] Under the subsequent Treaty of Frankfurt, France relinquished most of its traditionally German regions (Alsace and the German-speaking part of Lorraine); paid an indemnity, calculated (on the basis of population) as the precise equivalent of the indemnity that Napoleon Bonaparte imposed on Prussia in 1807;[102] and accepted German administration of Paris and most of northern France, with "German troops to be withdrawn stage by stage with each installment of the indemnity payment". [52] This new argument further challenges the norms of the British-centric model of development: studies of national development in Britain and other "normal" states (e.g., France or the United States) have suggested that even in these cases, the modern nation-state did not develop evenly. Today we'll look at how Italy and Germany pulled it together in the second half of the 1800s. . The needle gun, one of the first bolt action rifles to be used in conflict, aided the Prussians in both this war and the Austro-Prussian War two years later. The Imperial Diet had the power to pass, amend, or reject bills, but it could not initiate legislation. [53] Since the end of the 1990s, this view has become widely accepted, although some historians still find the Sonderweg analysis helpful in understanding the period of National Socialism. The Danes were no match for the combined Prussian and Austrian forces and their modern armaments. During the ill-fated Revolutions of 1848, nationalists in Germany and Italy tried unsuccessfully to unify their nations on the basis of shared language and culture. Napoleon established instead a German client state of France known as the Confederation of the Rhine which, inter alia, provided for the mediatization of over a hundred petty princes and counts and the absorption of their territories, as well as those of hundreds of imperial knights, by the Confederation's member-states. The Prussian war cabinet understood that its only supporters among the German states against the Habsburgs were two small principalities bordering on Brandenburg that had little military strength or political clout: the Grand Duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Through military victory, Prussia under Bismarck's influence had overcome Austria's active resistance to the idea of a unified Germany. How were they to be organized? After the victory over Austria in 1866, Prussia began internally asserting its authority to speak for the German states and defend German interests, while Austria began directing more and more of its attention to possessions in the Balkans. Comparing and contrasting Wagner's views of nationalism in "Art and Revolution" with Bismarck's speech to the Prussian Lower House, what are the strengths and weaknesses of each view? For a discussion of the tonal elements of Das Rhinegold and their significance, see The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, available online by subscription (free trial is offered). Sometimes, as with the case of German Catholics, this was a relatively benign process; the case of Poland, however, shows a different side of German unification. AP European History. Members of the Upper House of the parliament, the Bundesrat, were appointed by the princes of the individual German states and were therefore beholden to the monarchs. They brought Austria and Hungary together into one empire. [63], The Crimean War of 185455 and the Italian War of 1859 disrupted relations among Great Britain, France, Austria, and Russia. Protestants, Catholics and Jews in Germany, 1800-1914. The German Conquest of France in 18701871. [108], The 1866 North German Constitution became (with some semantic adjustments) the 1871 Constitution of the German Empire. c. napoleon iii's army invaded prussia and overthrew king wilhelm i. d. austria annexed the northern german states of hesse . This digital interactive notebook for World History & AP Euro . The question became not a matter of if but rather when unification would occur, and when was contingent upon strength. He was first and foremost a politician, and in this lied his strength. AP stands for "Advanced Placement"; it is a test intended for U.S. or foreign high school students to prove extraordinary knowledge. "[65] Bismarck's words, "iron and blood" (or "blood and iron", as often attributed), have often been misappropriated as evidence of a German lust for blood and power. Among the German-speaking states, the Holy Roman Empire's administrative and legal mechanisms provided a venue to resolve disputes between peasants and landlords, between jurisdictions, and within jurisdictions. Despite calls for rational thought and action, Italy, Prussia, and Austria continued to rush toward armed conflict. Examples of this argument appear in: Ralf Dahrendorf. The effects of the railway were immediate. Bismarck resolved the crisis in favor of the war minister. [49] Furthermore, this argument maintains, the "failure" of 1848 reaffirmed latent aristocratic longings among the German middle class; consequently, this group never developed a self-conscious program of modernization. The career and music of Richard Wagner offer a unique interdisciplinary approach to the romantic aspect of German nationalism. In his first two wars, Bismarck balanced Russian and French concerns over the growing power of Prussia. The assembly offered to share power under a constitutional monarchy and offered the crown of a unified Germany to Frederick William IV of Prussia. Urban middle class Beyond the salons, Jews continued a process of Germanization in which they intentionally adopted German modes of dress and speech, working to insert themselves into the emerging 19th-century German public sphere. Most European liberals in the Vormrz sought unification under nationalist principles, promoted the transition to capitalism, sought the expansion of male suffrage, among other issues. [15], The period of Austrian and Prussian police-states and vast censorship between the Congress of Vienna and the Revolutions of 1848 in Germany later became widely known as the Vormrz, the "before March", referring to March 1848. [104] Although Bismarck had led the transformation of Germany from a loose confederation into a federal nation state, he had not done it alone. The remainder of the letter exhorts the Germans to unification: "This role of world leadership, left vacant as things are today, might well be occupied by the German nation. Chapter 19 AP Euro DRAFT. Aristocrat the German Reich having 25 member states and led by the Kingdom of Prussia of the Hohenzollerns on 18 January 1871; the event was later celebrated as the customary date of the German Empire's foundation, although the legally meaningful events relevant to the accomplishment of unification occurred on 1 January 1871 (accession of South German states and constitutional adoption of the name German Empire) and 4 May 1871 (entry into force of the permanent Constitution of the German Empire). Unlike liberalism or conservatism, Realpolitik essentially rejected ideology in favor of the most efficacious political or diplomatic response, be it liberal or conservative. Napoleon had ordered the emancipation of Jews throughout territories under French hegemony. [39], As travel became easier, faster, and less expensive, Germans started to see unity in factors other than their language. France's sphere included the Iberian Peninsula and a share of influence in the Italian states. German and Italian unification was the fruit of the nationalism in 19th century. Furthermore, it was becoming increasingly clear that both Austria and Prussia wanted to be the leaders in any resulting unification; each would inhibit the drive of the other to achieve unification. "Asymmetrical Historical Comparison: The Case of the German, Llobera, Josep R. and Goldsmiths' College. Brunswick joined the Zollverein Customs Union in 1842, while Hanover and Oldenburg finally joined in 1854[32] After the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg were annexed by Prussia and thus annexed also to the Customs Union, while the two Mecklenburg states and the city states of Hamburg and Bremen joined late because they were reliant on international trade. While Bismarck provided some liberal concessions, such as universal male suffrage, the constitution of the Empire ensured Prussian and aristocratic dominance in the legislature. [51] Instead, modern historians claim 1848 saw specific achievements by the liberal politicians. Cambridge University Press.2003. . Carrying flags, beating drums, and singing, the participants took the better part of the morning and mid-day to arrive at the castle grounds, where they listened to speeches by nationalist orators from across the conservative to radical political spectrum. Prussian merchants, with the support of the Prussian crown, established the customs and trade union known as the Zollverein in 1834. 9 months ago. Through the organization of imperial circles (Reichskreise), groups of states consolidated resources and promoted regional and organizational interests, including economic cooperation and military protection. Finally, the Polish majority living in the share of Polish territory annexed by Prussia pursued their own liberation agenda. Mann, Chapter 6, pp. In 1806, after a successful invasion of Prussia and the defeat of Prussia at the joint battles of Jena-Auerstedt 1806 during the War of the Third Coalition, Napoleon dictated the Treaty of Pressburg which included the formal dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the abdication of Emperor Francis II from the nominal reign over it. [11], Generally, an enlarged Prussia and the 38 other states consolidated from the mediatized territories of 1803 were confederated within the Austrian Empire's sphere of influence. Yet, as Germans discovered, grand speeches, flags, and enthusiastic crowds, a constitution, a political reorganization, and the provision of an imperial superstructure; and the revised Customs Union of 186768, still did not make a nation. Unifying various states into one nation required more than some military victories, however much these might have boosted morale. Wagner personally oversaw the design and construction of the theater located in the small Bavarian village of Bayreuth, the Festspielhaus, which opened in 1870 and where the Ring Cycle operas were first performed. History. As the rail network expanded, it became cheaper to transport goods: in 1840, 18 Pfennigs per ton per kilometer and in 1870, five Pfennigs. Diplomatic attempts to have the November Constitution repealed collapsed, and fighting began when Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the Eider river on 1 February 1864. Bismarck's policies, especially the buildup of the Prussian army, led to conflict with the liberal-dominated Lower House of the Prussian parliament, which resisted his proposals to pay for the increase in military expenditures with new taxes until Bismarck and the crown agreed to lasting constitutional reform. German unification had also been viewed as a prerequisite for the creation of a European federation, which Giuseppe Mazzini and other European patriots had been promoting for more than three decades: In the spring of 1834, while at Berne, Mazzini and a dozen refugees from Italy, Poland and Germany founded a new association with the grandiose name of Young Europe. By 1846, 180 steamers plied German rivers and Lake Constance, and a network of canals extended from the Danube, the Weser, and the Elbe rivers. Economic success, political failure, and diplomatic tension marked the idea of a unified Germany in the period after the Napoleonic Wars. [4], A common language may have been seen to serve as the basis of a nation, but as contemporary historians of 19th-century Germany noted, it took more than linguistic similarity to unify these several hundred polities. With the exception of the years 18721873 and 18921894, the imperial chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of the imperial dynasty's hegemonic home-kingdom, Prussia. He was also an ardent German nationalist. 9 months ago. The post Cold War reunification of Germany in 1990 seemed such a natural consequence of the end of the Cold War and the collapse of Soviet power in Eastern Europe that it is easy to forget that Germany had a fairly brief life span as a unified nation-state. France promised aid, but it came late and was insufficient. 47 and Conclusion. This brief war (fought over the course of mere weeks) pitted Prussia and her allies against Austria and other German states. Since the 15th century, with few exceptions, the Empire's Prince-electors had chosen successive heads of the House of Habsburg from the Duchy of Austria to hold the title of Holy Roman Emperor. [36] Historians of the German Empire later regarded the railways as the first indicator of a unified state; the patriotic novelist, Wilhelm Raabe, wrote: "The German empire was founded with the construction of the first railway"[37] Not everyone greeted the iron monster with enthusiasm. Howard, Chapter XI: the Peace, pp. Eastern Junker power had a counterweight in the western provinces in the form of the Grand Bourgeoisie and in the growing professional class of bureaucrats, teachers, professors, doctors, lawyers, scientists, etc. Several states were promoted to kingdoms such as the Kingdom of Bavaria, the Kingdom of Saxony or the Kingdom of Hanover. The process symbolically concluded with the ceremonial proclamation of the German Empire i.e. "Comparison and Beyond. To name only a few of these studies: Geoff Eley. [61], King Frederick William IV suffered a stroke in 1857 and could no longer rule. The movement to unite Italy into one cultural and political entity was known as the Risorgimento (literally, "resurgence"). Why did Wagner's cultural/mythical nationalism yield to Bismarck's policy of Realpolitik? [91] Over the next few weeks, the Spanish offer turned into the talk of Europe. Such leadership, of course, is required not to dominate other peoples but to lead them along the path of duty, to lead them toward the brotherhood of nations where all the barriers erected by egoism will be destroyed." Ap euro 21 - lecture notes; Ap euro 23 - lecture notes; Ap euro 24 - lecture notes; Ap euro 25 - lecture notes; Ap euro 26 - lecture notes; .
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